Taxonomy relies greatly on morphology to discriminate groups. Computerized geometric morphometric methods for quantitative shape analysis measure, test and visualize differences in form a highly effective, reproducible, accurate statistically powerful way. Plant leaves are commonly used taxonomic analyses particularly suitable landmark based morphometrics. However, botanists do not yet seem have taken advantage of this set their studies as much zoologists done. Using free software an example...

Form and genes often tell different stories about the evolution of animals, with molecular data generally considered to be more objective than morphological data. However, form provides basis for description organisms, study fossils crucially depends on morphology. Complex organisms tend evolve as 'mosaics', in which parts may modified at varying rates response selective pressures. Thus, individual anatomical regions contain phylogenetic signals. In present study, we used computerized...

Abstract Aim To examine and visualize clines in size shape of Cercopithecus aethiops Linneus, 1758 (Primate, Cercopithecidae) skulls, to investigate environmental factors which might best explain the observed variation. Location Sub‐Saharan Africa. Methods Eighty‐six three‐dimensional anatomical landmarks were used describe 306 skulls adult C. sampled over its entire distribution. Geometric morphometric methods for quantitative analysis form variation applied. Size variables computed...

Procrustean geometric morphometrics has made large use of 2D images for studying three-dimensional structures such as mammalian bones or arthropod exoskeleta. This type data is still widespread today and will likely remain common several years due to its simplicity, efficiency low cost. However, using pictures measure morphological variation in a 3D object an approximation that inevitably implies measurement error. Despite this being obvious problem, which was emphasized since the early days...

Abstract Measurement error (ME) in geometric morphometrics has been the subject of countless articles, but none specific to effect time lags on landmark digitization error. Yet, especially for visiting scientists working museum collections, it is not uncommon collect data multiple rounds, with interruptions weeks or years. To explore impact Procrustes shape analysis, I repeatedly digitized same landmarks, photographs crania adult yellow‐bellied marmots, at progressively longer intervals,...

ABSTRACT Previous studies have examined mid‐facial cold adaptation among either widely dispersed and genetically very diverse groups of humans isolated for tens thousands years, or closely related spread over climatically different regions. Here we present a study one East Asian seven North populations in which examine the evidence convergent adaptations mid‐face to climate. Our findings indicate that morphology is strongly associated with climatic variables contrast temperate climate Asians...

Almost 100 years after the publication of Thompson's seminal book On growth and form, study animal morphology is becoming again central to biology. This also thanks development powerful computerized quantitative methods for statistical shape analysis, collectively known as geometric morphometrics (GM). GM was announced a revolution just two decades ago. The now standard tool in numerical analyses phenotypic variation mammals other organisms. Hundreds studies are published every year that...

Systematists and evolutionary biologists have widely adopted Procrustes-based geometric morphometrics for measuring size shape in biology. Many structures, fact most animals, are bilaterally symmetric with an internal plane of symmetry (also called object symmetry). Often, when quantifying asymmetric variation is not aim, only one or the other side measured analyzed. This approach has been used hundreds studies. Its implicit assumption that information on redundant a single will, therefore,...

Taxonomy lays the foundations for study of biodiversity and its conservation. Procrustean geometric morphometrics (GMM) is a most common technique taxonomic assessment phenotypic population differences. To measure biological variation detect evolutionarily significant units, GMM often used on own, although it much more powerful with an integrative approach, in combination molecular, ecological behavioural data, as well meristic morphological traits. particularly effective research, when...

Marmots have a prominent role in the study of mammalian social evolution, but only recently has their systematics received attention it deserves if sociobiological studies are to be placed phylogenetic context. Sciurid morphology can used as model test congruence between morphological change and phylogeny because sciurid skeletal characters considered inclined convergence. However, no involving all marmot species ever been undertaken. Geometric morphometric techniques were applied...