How can cooperation through indirect reciprocity evolve and what would it be like? This problem has previously been studied by simulating evolution in a small group of interacting individuals, assuming no gene flow between groups. In these simulations, certain 'image scoring' strategies were found to the most successful. However, analytical arguments show that not an individual's interest use strategies. Starting with this puzzle, we investigate simulations based on island model. advantage...

The interrelationships among development time, growth rate, and adult size are investigated using simple optimization models of a seasonal life history in which larger adults have greater reproductive output. Unlike most previous studies, our assume that rate is an adaptively flexible character can be increased at the expense juvenile mortality rate. Three components fitness considered: cost developing suboptimal time year, advantage size, from rapid growth. study focuses on optimal...

An organism's phenotype can be influenced by maternal cues and directly perceived environmental cues, as well its genotype at polymorphic loci, which interpreted a genetic cue. In fluctuating environments, natural selection favors organisms that efficiently integrate different sources of information about the likely success phenotypic alternatives. such situations, it beneficial to pass on offspring respond to. A cue could based mother but also partly were passed grandmother. We have used...

Phenotypic quality, such as condition or size, often varies between individuals. For species with extensive maternal care, the quality of offspring may partially be determined by their mother. Trivers and Willard (1973) predicted that high females should prefer sex whose reproductive success is most strongly influenced which in many cases will sons. Correspondingly, low daughters. However, this prediction not based on a proper analysis variation value. Using state-dependent life-history...

Species that have evolved some defense against predators, here called unprofitable prey, often show aposematic (warning) coloration. The process whereby a predator learns not to attack prey is an essential ingredient in the interaction between predators and such prey. Using learning theory evolutionary game theory, we develop model of predator-prey interactions, focusing on two characters: unprofitability Both these characters are treated as one-dimensional variables, it assumed variation...

Many insect species form aggregations in either the larval or adult stage. The evolution of gregariousness insects may seem disadvantageous because are easily discovered by a predator and small slow relation to many potential predators that then have capacity consume an entire group. For animals general, benefit group living be decreased risk attack on any particular individual. insects, this effect, called dilution, can consequence distastefulness, which limits number prey take. A model is...

Abstract There are many inputs during development that influence an organism's fit to current or upcoming environments. These include genetic effects, transgenerational epigenetic influences, environmental cues and developmental noise, which rarely investigated in the same formal framework. We study analytically tractable evolutionary model, integrated determine mature phenotypes fluctuating Environmental received by mother as adult act detection‐based (individually observed) cues. The...

The social organization of most mammals is characterized by female philopatry and male dispersal. Such sex–biased dispersal can cause the genetic structure populations to differ between maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) bi–parental nuclear genome. Here we report on global oceanic sperm whale, one widely distributed mammalian species. Groups females juveniles are mainly found at low latitudes, while males reach polar waters, returning tropical subtropical waters breed. In...

A population is polymorphic when its members fall into two or more categories, referred to as alternative phenotypes. There are many kinds of phenotypic polymorphisms, with specialization in reproduction, feeding, dispersal, protection from predators. An individual's phenotype might be randomly assigned during development, genetically determined, set by environmental cues. These three possibilities correspond a mixed strategy genetic polymorphism, and conditional strategy. Using the...