Following recent advances in bioimaging, high-resolution 3D models of biological structures are now generated rapidly and at low-cost. To use this data to address evolutionary ecological questions, an array tools has been developed conduct shape analysis quantify topographic complexity. Here we focus particularly on techniques applied irregular-shaped objects lacking clear homologous landmarks, propose a new 'alpha-shapes' method for quantifying complexity.We apply alpha-shapes complexity...

Body mass is a critical parameter used to constrain biomechanical and physiological traits of organisms. Volumetric methods are becoming more common as techniques for estimating the body masses fossil vertebrates. However, they often accused excessive subjective input when thickness missing soft tissue. Here, we demonstrate an alternative approach where minimum convex hull derived mathematically from point cloud generated by laser-scanning mounted skeletons. This has advantage requiring...

Abstract Convergent evolution, the acquisition of morphologically similar traits in unrelated taxa due to functional demands or environmental factors, is a common phenomenon animal kingdom. Consequently, occurrence form used routinely address fundamental questions morphofunctional research and infer function fossils. However, such qualitative assessments can be misleading it essential test form/function relationships quantitatively. The parallel suite convergent craniodental characteristics...

The running ability of Tyrannosaurus rex has been intensively studied due to its relevance interpretations feeding behaviour and the biomechanics scaling in giant predatory dinosaurs. Different studies using differing methodologies have produced a very wide range top speed estimates there is therefore need develop techniques that can improve these predictions. Here we present new approach combines two separate biomechanical (multibody dynamic analysis skeletal stress analysis) demonstrate...

Estimates of body mass often represent the founding assumption on which biomechanical and macroevolutionary hypotheses are based. Recently, a scaling equation was applied to newly discovered titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur ( Dreadnoughtus ), yielding 59 300 kg estimate for this animal. Herein, we use modelling approach examine plausibility . We find that is highly implausible demonstrate masses above 40 000 require high densities expansions soft tissue volume outside skeleton several times...

Although Stegosaurus is one of the most iconic dinosaurs, well-preserved fossils are rare and as a consequence there still much that remains unknown about taxon. A new, exceptionally complete individual affords opportunity to describe anatomy in detail for first time over century, enables additional comparisons with other stegosaurian dinosaurs. The new specimen from Red Canyon Ranch Quarry, near Shell Wyoming, appears have been so well preserved because it was buried rapidly pond or body...

The volumetric method of 'convex hulling' has recently been put forward as a mass prediction technique for fossil vertebrates. Convex hulling involves the calculation minimum convex hull volumes (volCH) from complete mounted skeletons modern museum specimens, which are subsequently regressed against body (Mb) to derive predictive equations extinct species. applied estimate in giant sauropods and ratites, however biomechanical signal contained within volCH remained unclear. Specifically, when...

Sexual differences in size and shape are common across the animal kingdom. The study of sexual dimorphism (SD) can provide insight into sexual- natural-selection pressures experienced by males females different species. Arachnids diverse, comprising over 100,000 species, exhibit some more extreme forms SD kingdom, with species differing dramatically body and/or size. Despite this, research on arachnid has primarily focused specific clades as opposed to observing traits orders, smallest which...

Classic beam theory is frequently used in biomechanics to model the stress behaviour of vertebrate long bones, particularly when creating intraspecific scaling models. Although methodologically straightforward, classic requires complex irregular bones be approximated as slender beams, and errors associated with simplifying organic structures such an extent are unknown. Alternative approaches, finite element analysis (FEA), while much more time-consuming perform, require no assumptions. This...

Body mass is a key biological variable, but difficult to assess from fossils. Various techniques exist for estimating body skeletal parameters, few studies have compared outputs different methods. Here, we apply several estimation methods an exceptionally complete skeleton of the dinosaur Stegosaurus. Applying volumetric convex-hulling technique digital model Stegosaurus, estimate 1560 kg (95% prediction interval 1082-2256 kg) this individual. By contrast, bivariate equations based on limb...

The limb bones of an elephant are considered to experience similar peak locomotory stresses as a shrew. “Safety factors” maintained across the entire range body masses through combination robusticity long bones, postural variation, and modification gait. relative contributions these variables remain uncertain. To test role shape change, we undertook X‐ray tomographic scans leg 60 species mammals birds, extracted geometric properties. maximum resistible forces could withstand before yield...

The moment arm of a muscle defines its leverage around given joint. In clinical setting, the quantification arms is an important means establishing 'healthy' functioning and in identifying treating musculoskeletal abnormalities. Elsewhere modern animal taxa, studies aim to illuminate adaptions system towards particular locomotor or feeding behaviors. absence kinematic data, paleontologists have likewise relied upon estimated as reconstructing function biomechanical performance fossil...

Abstract Comparisons of 3D shapes have recently been applied to diverse anatomical structures using landmarking techniques. However, discerning evolutionary patterns can be challenging for lacking homologous landmarks. We used alpha shape analyses quantify vaginal complexity in 40 marine mammal specimens including cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians. explored phylogenetic signal the potential roles natural sexual selection on evolution. Complexity scores were consistent with qualitative...

The link between form and function is key to understanding the evolution of unique and/or extreme morphologies. Amblypygids, or whip spiders, are arachnids that often have highly elongated spined pedipalps. These limbs used strike at, secure, prey before processing by chelicerae. Amblypygi pedipalps multifunctional, however, being in courtship contest, vary greatly species. Increased pedipalp length may improve performance during capture, but could also be influenced factors including...

The extinct moa of New Zealand included three families (Megalapterygidae; Dinornithidae; Emeidae) flightless palaeognath bird, ranging in mass from <15 kg to >200 kg. They are perceived have evolved extremely robust leg bones, yet current estimates body very wide confidence intervals. Without reliable estimators mass, the extent which dinornithid and emeid hindlimbs were more than modern species remains unclear. Using convex hull volumetric-based method on CT-scanned skeletons, we estimate a...

Body mass is a fundamental physical property of an individual and has enormous bearing upon ecology physiology. Generating reliable estimates for body therefore necessary step in many palaeontological studies. Whilst early reconstructions extinct species relied isolated skeletal elements, volumetric techniques are increasingly applied to fossils when completeness allows. We apply new ‘alpha shapes’ ( α -shapes) algorithm estimation quadrupedal mammals. -shapes defined by: (i) the underlying...

Projectile damage to building stone is a widespread phenomenon. Sites damaged 100 years ago during the First World War still see daily use, while in more contemporary setting numerous reports show buildings Babylon, Mosul and Palmyra. While research has been carried out on long-term effects of conflict such as fire damage, little known about protracted sustained through impact bullets, shrapnel other metal projectiles outside field engineering focused ceramics metals. To investigate...

The baculum (os penis) is a mineralized bone within the glans of mammalian penis and one most morphologically diverse structures in mammal skeleton. Recent experimental work provides compelling evidence for sexual selection shaping baculum, yet functional mechanism by which this occurs remains unknown. Previous studies have tested biomechanical hypotheses role based on simple metrics such as length diameter, ignoring wealth additional shape complexity present. For first time, to our...

The external appearance of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus, Linnaeus, 1758) has been a source considerable intrigue, as contemporaneous accounts or depictions are rare. body mass particularly contentious, with flightless pigeon alternatively reconstructed slim fat depending upon skeletal metric used basis for prediction. Resolving this dichotomy and obtaining reliable estimate is essential before future analyses regarding life history, physiology biomechanics can be conducted. Previous estimates...

The baculum is an enigmatic bone within the mammalian glans penis, and driving forces behind its often bizarre shape have captivated evolutionary biologists for over a century. Hypotheses function of include aiding in intromission, stimulating females assisting with prolonged mating. Previous attempts to test these hypotheses focused on gross size failed reach consensus. We conducted three-dimensional imaging apply new method quantify complexity carnivoran baculum. show that socially...