Most studies of plant-animal mutualisms involve a small number species. There is almost no information on the structural organization species-rich mutualistic networks despite its potential importance for maintenance diversity. Here we analyze 52 and show that they are highly nested; is, more specialist species interact only with proper subsets those interacting generalists. This assembly pattern generates asymmetrical interactions organizes community cohesively around central core...

The main drivers of global environmental change (CO2 enrichment, nitrogen deposition, climate, biotic invasions and land use) cause extinctions alter species distributions, recent evidence shows that they exert pervasive impacts on various antagonistic mutualistic interactions among species. In this review, we synthesize data from 688 published studies to show these often competitive plants animals, multitrophic effects the decomposer food web, increase intensity pathogen infection, weaken...

In natural communities, species and their interactions are often organized as nonrandom networks, showing distinct repeated complex patterns. A prevalent, but poorly explored pattern is ecological modularity, with weakly interlinked subsets of (modules), which, however, internally consist strongly connected species. The importance modularity has been discussed for a long time, no consensus on its prevalence in networks yet reached. Progress hampered by inadequate methods lack large datasets....

The mutually beneficial interactions between plants and their animal pollinators seed dispersers have been paramount in the generation of Earth's biodiversity. These mutualistic often involve dozens or even hundreds species that form complex networks interdependences. Understanding how coevolution proceeds these highly diversified mutualisms among free-living presents a conceptual challenge. Recent work has led to unambiguous conclusion are very heterogeneous (the bulk few interactions, but...

The mutualistic interactions between plants and their pollinators or seed dispersers have played a major role in the maintenance of Earth's biodiversity. To investigate how coevolutionary are shaped within species-rich communities, we characterized architecture an array quantitative, networks spanning broad geographic range. These highly asymmetric, so that if plant species depends strongly on animal species, weakly plant. By using simple dynamical model, showed asymmetries inherent may...

Abstract Plant–animal mutualistic networks are interaction webs consisting of two sets entities, plant and animal species, whose evolutionary dynamics deeply influenced by the outcomes interactions, yielding a diverse array coevolutionary processes. These two‐mode sharing many common properties with others such as food webs, social, abiotic networks. Here we describe generalized patterns in topology 29 plant–pollinator 24 plant–frugivore natural communities. Scale‐free have been described...

It has recently been noted that empirical food webs are significantly compartmentalized; is, subsets of species exist interact more frequently among themselves than with other in the community. Although dynamic implications compartmentalization have debated for at least four decades, a general answer remained elusive. Here, we unambiguously demonstrate acts to increase persistence multitrophic webs. We then identify mechanisms behind this result. Compartments act directly buffer propagation...

The stability of ecological communities largely depends on the strength interactions between predators and their prey. Here we show that these interaction strengths are structured nonrandomly in a large Caribbean marine food web. Specifically, cooccurrence strong two consecutive levels chains occurs less frequently than expected by chance. Even when they occur, strongly interacting accompanied omnivory more often By using web model, combinations reduce likelihood trophic cascades after...

In theoretical ecology, traditional studies based on dynamical stability and numerical simulations have not found a unified answer to the effect of network architecture community persistence. Here, we introduce mathematical framework concept structural explain such disparity results. We investigated range conditions necessary for stable coexistence all species in mutualistic systems. show that apparently contradictory conclusions reached by previous arise as consequence overseeing either...

Biodiversity research typically focuses on species richness and has often neglected interactions, either by assuming that such interactions are homogeneously distributed or addressing only the between a pair of few at time. In contrast, network approach provides powerful representation ecological among highlights their global interdependence. Understanding how responses pairwise scale to entire assemblages remains one great challenges must be met as society faces ecosystem change.

Despite a strong current interest in ecological networks, the bulk of studies are static descriptions structure and very few analyze their temporal dynamics. Yet, understanding network dynamics is important order to relate patterns processes. We studied day-to-day an arctic pollination interaction over two consecutive seasons. First, we found that new species entering tend interact with already well-connected species, although there deviations from this trend due, for example, morphological...

1. Understanding the structure of ecological networks is a crucial task for interpreting community and ecosystem responses to global change. 2. Despite recent interest in this subject, almost all studies have focused exclusively on one specific network property. The question remains as what extent different properties are related how understanding relationship can advance our comprehension mechanisms behind these patterns. 3. Here, we analysed between nestedness modularity, two frequently...

We present a comprehensive approach to detect pattern in assemblages of plant and animal species linked by interactions such as pollination, frugivory or herbivory. Simple structural models produce gradient, compartmented nested patterns interaction; intermediate between gradient compartments are possible, nesting within produces combined model. Interaction can be visualized analyzed either matrices, bipartite networks multivariate sets through correspondence analysis. argue that differences...

The incidence of habitat destruction on the survivorship a single metapopulation is studied by means spatially explicit model. As proportion destroyed sites increases, structural properties resulting landscape change in non-linear way, showing existence critical thresholds and phase transitions. Such are identified an order parameter, which discriminates quantitative process, i.e. loss, from qualitative one, fragmentation. This difference only well understood using framework. We introduce...

Ecological networks are complexes of interacting species, but not all potential links among species realized. Unobserved either missing or forbidden. Missing exist, require more sampling alternative ways detection to be verified. Forbidden remain unobservable, irrespective effort. They caused by linkage constraints. We studied one Arctic pollination network and two Mediterranean seed-dispersal networks. In the first, for example, we recorded flower-visit full season, arranged data in an...