gprMax is open source software that simulates electromagnetic wave propagation, using the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method, for numerical modelling of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). was originally developed in 1996 when FDTD method and, general, GPR were their infancy. Current computing resources offer opportunity to build detailed and complex models an extent not previously possible. To enable these types simulations be more easily realised, also facilitate addition advanced...

A three-dimensional (3-D) finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) algorithm is used in order to simulate ground penetrating radar (GPR) for landmine detection. Two bowtie GPR transducers are chosen the simulations and two widely employed antipersonnel (AP) landmines, namely PMA-1 PMN used. The validity of modeled antennas landmines tested through a comparison between numerical laboratory measurements. AP buried realistically simulated soil. geometrical characteristics soil's inhomogeneity using...

Very few researchers have developed numerical models of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) that include realistic descriptions both the antennas and subsurface. This is essential to be able accurately predict responses from near-surface, near-field targets. We a detailed 3D finite-difference time-domain two commercial GPR — Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI) 1.5-GHz antenna MALÅ Geoscience 1.2-GHz using simple analyses geometries main components antennas. Values for unknown parameters in...

The Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method is a popular numerical modelling technique in computational electromagnetics. volumetric nature of the FDTD means simulations often require extensive resources (both processing time and memory). simulation Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) one such challenge, where GPR transducer, subsurface/structure, targets must all be included model, adequately discretised. Additionally, forward can necessitate hundreds models with different geometries...

The simulation, or forward modeling, of ground penetrating radar (GPR) is becoming a more frequently used approach to facilitate the interpretation complex real GPR data, and as an essential component full-waveform inversion (FWI). However, general full-wave 3-D electromagnetic (EM) solvers, such ones based on finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method, are still computationally demanding for simulating realistic problems. We have developed novel near-real-time, modeling that machine...

Finite-difference time-domain forward modeling of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is becoming regularly used in model-based interpretation methods, such as full-waveform inversion (FWI) and machine learning schemes. Oversimplifications models can compromise the accuracy realism with which real GPR responses be simulated, degrades overall performance techniques. A model must able to accurately simulate every part problem that affects resulting scattered field. key element, especially for...

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a well-established tool for detecting and locating reinforcing bars (rebars) in concrete structures. However, using GPR to quantify the diameter of rebars challenging problem that current processing approaches fail tackle. To extent, we have developed novel machine learning framework can estimate investigated rebar within resolution range employed antenna. The suggested approach combines neural networks random forest regression has been trained entirely...

gprMax is a freely-available set of electromagnetic wave simulation tools based on the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) numerical method. was originally written in mid-1990s and has primarily been used to simulate Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). Current computing resources offer opportunity build detailed complex FDTD models GPR an extent that not previously possible. To enable these types simulations be more easily realised, also facilitate addition advanced features, significant...

Hyperbola fitting is a mainstream interpretation technique used in ground penetrating radar (GPR) due to its simplicity and relatively low computational requirements. Conventional hyperbola based on the assumption that investigated medium homogeneous half-space, target an ideal reflector with zero radius. However, zero-radius can be easily removed by formulating problem more generalized way considers targets arbitrary size. Such approaches were recently literature, suggesting not only for...

Radio-echo sounding (RES) reveals patches of high backscatter in basal ice units, which represent distinct englacial features the bottom parts glaciers and sheets. Their material composition physical properties are largely unknown due to their direct inaccessibility but could provide significant information on state as well present past processes at ice-sheet base. Here, we investigate units by comparing measured airborne radar data with synthetic responses generated using electromagnetic...

Numerical artifacts affect the reliability of computational dosimetry human exposure to low-frequency electromagnetic fields. In guidelines International Commission Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, a reduction factor 3 was considered take into account numerical uncertainties when determining limit values for exposure. However, rationale this value is unsure. The IEEE Committee on Electromagnetic Safety has published research agenda resolve in dosimetry. For purpose, intercomparison results...

The way in which electromagnetic fields are transmitted and received by ground penetrating radar (GPR) antennas is crucial to the performance of GPR systems. Simple have been characterized analyzing their radiation patterns directivity. However, there limited studies that combine real with realistic environments, essential capture complex interactions between antenna surroundings. We investigated characteristics sensitivity a range lossy dielectric environments using both physical...

Summary gprMax is open source software that simulates electromagnetic wave propagation. It uses Yee’s algorithm to solve Maxwell’s equations using a Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) scheme. the most widely used simulation tool in Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) community, and has been successfully utilised for diverse range of applications industry academia.

Abstract The current paper investigates the shallow layers of lunar regolith at Chang’E‐4 landing site. Four between 0 and 10 m were identified using penetrating radar. Based on these outputs, a revised stratigraphic model is suggested for post‐Imbrian ejecta Von Kármán crater. previously unseen due to smooth boundaries them. was inferred an advanced hyperbola‐fitting scheme. Applying conventional non‐homogeneous media results in errors inaccuracies that are often wrongly assumed be...

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is becoming a mainstream tool in planetary exploration, and one of the few in-situ geophysical methods. There are currently three missions (Perseverance, Tianwen-1, Chang'E-4) with GPR-equipped rovers, two future (Chang'E-7, ExoMars) that will include GPR their scientific payload. The large number data, combined novel setup measurements, creates need for new data processing interpretation techniques to address unique challenges radar. current paper proposes an...

Yutu-2 – the rover from Chang'E-4 mission is longest operational Lunar rover, and first to land on far side of Moon. It second planetary be equipped with ground-penetrating radar (GPR), one few in-situ geophysical techniques used in exploration. Since landing 2019, has travelled more than 1 kilometre Von Kármán (VK) crater, been able investigate dielectric properties shallow ejecta using its on-board high frequency GPR channels. In this paper, we use advanced signal processing attributes...

Directly measuring the radiation characteristics of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) antennas in environments typically encountered GPR surveys, presents many practical difficulties. However it is very important to understand how energy being transmitted and received by antenna, especially for areas research such as antenna design, signal processing, inversion methodologies. To overcome difficulties experimental measurements, we used an advanced modelling toolset simulate detailed...

Chang'E-3, Chang'E-4 and Chang'E-5 were the first planetary missions with in-situ ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in their scientific payloads. Apart from Chang'E missions, GPR has also been used Martian Tianwen-1 Perseverance, establishing as a mainstream pivotal tool new era of exploration. Despite its widespread use science, interpreting data mission is still challenging, varying ambiguous interpretations offered by different researchers. This primarily due to complexity heterogeneity...

A numerical modelling case study is presented aiming to investigate aspects of the applicability artificial neural networks (ANN) problem landmine detection using ground penetrating radar (GPR). An essential requirement ANN and machine learning in general, an extensive training set. good set should include data from as many scenarios possible. Therefore, a consisting simulated diverse range models with varying: topography, soil inhomogeneity, landmines, false alarm targets, height antenna,...

Horizontally stratified media are commonly used to represent naturally occurring and man-made structures, such as soils, roads, pavements, when probed by ground-penetrating radar (GPR). Electromagnetic (EM) wave scattering from multilayered is dependent on the roughness of interfaces. In this paper, we developed a closed-form asymptotic EM model considering random rough layers based scalar Kirchhoff-tangent plane approximation (SKA) that combined with planar Green's functions. order validate...

This paper presents an investigation of the radiation characteristics and sensitivity a high-frequency Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) antenna using patterns obtained from both physical measurements three-dimensional (3D) Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) numerical model. The aim was to develop understanding how electromagnetic energy is radiated received by real GPR in lossy dielectric environments. were measuring responses target positioned at series intervals on circumference circle...

Development of accurate models GPR antennas is being driven by research into more simulation amplitude and phase information, improved antenna designs, better-performing forward simulations for inversion procedures. Models a simple dipole antenna, as well complex similar to GSSI 1.5GHz MALA Geo-science 1.2GHz were investigated in free space over lossless lossy dielectric half-spaces. We present comparisons simulated data using the Finite-Integration Technique, Finite-Difference Time-Domain...

Full-waveform inversion (FWI) of cross-borehole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data is a technique with the potential to investigate subsurface structures. Typical FWI applications transform 3D measurements into 2D domain via an asymptotic transformation, widely known as Bleistein filter. Despite broad use such it requires some assumptions that make prone errors. Although existence errors known, previous studies have failed quantify inaccuracies introduced on permittivity and electrical...

There have been a number of studies using theoretical predictions, numerical solutions, and measured data for analysing the radiation patterns Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) antennas in free-space over lossless low-loss half-spaces. These demonstrated that far-field do not apply near-field, results from simplistic models well match real antennas. In this paper Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) model based on high-frequency commercial GPR antenna was used to conduct an initial study into...