Painful venoms are used to deter predators. Pain itself, however, can signal damage and thus serves an important adaptive function. Evolution reduce general pain responses, although valuable for preying on venomous species, is rare, likely because it comes with the risk of reduced response tissue damage. Bark scorpions capitalize protective pathway predators by inflicting intensely painful stings. However, grasshopper mice regularly attack consume bark scorpions, grooming only briefly when...

Abstract Burrowing owls nest and roost in ground squirrel burrows, a refuge frequently used by rattlesnakes. When cornered, burrowing produce vocal hiss that has been suggested to mimic rattlesnake's rattle. To test this hypothesis, we conducted an experiment using two populations of Douglas squirrels differ their evolutionary histories with Both were sympatric owls. Squirrels from population subjected natural selection rattlesnakes treated the owl as cautiously they did rattle, responded...

Recent studies question the effectiveness of a traditional university curriculum in helping students improve their critical thinking and scientific literacy. We developed an introductory, general education (gen ed) science course to overcome both deficiencies. The course, titled Foundations Science, differs from most gen ed offerings that it is interdisciplinary; emphasizes nature along with, rather than primarily, findings science; incorporates case studies, such as vaccine-autism...

Abstract In this paper we report the results of our first efforts to evaluate functional significance signaler and perceiver variation in tail flagging (Fig. 1 Fig. 2A-C) by California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi). We a series anecdotes which describe circumstances variety movements squirrels, including different kinds flagging. Secondly primarily identify information afforded snake-elicited Tail is signal used when they are harassing potential snake predator 4). It attracts...

California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) approach, harass and even attack one of their important predators, the rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis). In some these encounters, rattlesnakes respond with defensive behavior, including rattling. Although rattle functions primarily as an aposematic signal, we hypothesized that extract from sound following additional information which indicates risk associated interacting snake. 1. Rattling snake is in a motivational state, appears to be both...

Sexual dimorphism can result from sexual or ecological selective pressures, but the importance of alternative reproductive roles and trait compensation in generating phenotypic differences between sexes is poorly understood. We evaluated morphological behavioral striped bark scorpions (Centruroides vittatus). propose that have driven sexually dimorphic body mass this species which produces sex locomotor performance. Poor performance females (due to burden being gravid) favors compensatory...

Abstract The predator‐prey relationship between California ground squirrels ( Spermophilus beecheyi ) and northern Pacific rattlesnakes Crotalus viridis is a useful system for exploring conflict assessment. Rattlesnakes are major predators of squirrel pups, but pose less significant threat to adult squirrels. Adults approach, harass, even attack in defense their pups. Two factors that may influence risk both snake during encounters the size body temperature rattlesnake. We used high‐speed...

Studies of venom variability have advanced from describing the mechanisms action and relative potency medically important toxins to understanding ecological evolutionary causes itself. While most studies focused on differences in venoms among taxa, populations, or age-classes, there may be intersexual effects as well. Striped bark scorpions (Centruroides vittatus) provide a good model for examining sex composition efficacy, this species exhibits dramatic sexual dimorphism both size defensive...

Abstract The purposes of this study were: (1) to describe the snake-directed antipredator behavior rock squirrels; (2) assess whether squirrels distinguish nonvenomous gopher snakes from venomous rattlesnakes; (3) compare antisnake in a snake-rare urban site and snake-abundant wilderness as means assessing natural selection or experience has generated population differences behavior; (4) snake densities two sites; (5) with that their closest relatives, California ground (Spermophilus...

Temperature can profoundly affect many physiological processes, including muscle performance. Many ectotherms appear sensitive to this relationship, choosing times and locations of activity permitting high body temperatures and, thus, quick escape from predators. High temperatures, however, lead dehydration, which in turn affects Striped bark scorpions Centruroides vittatus Say 1821 provide an ideal model for assessing the effects temperature water loss on two potentially important...

Among scorpion species, the Buthidae produce most deadly and painful venoms. However, little is known regarding venom components that cause pain their mechanism of action. Using a paw-licking assay (Mus musculus), this study compared pain-inducing capabilities venoms from two species New World (Centruroides vittatus, C. exilicauda) belonging to neurotoxin-producing family with one non-neurotoxin producing (Vaejovis spinigerus) in Vaejovidae. A α-toxin (CvIV4) was isolated vittatus tested on...

Pain, though unpleasant, is adaptive in calling an animal’s attention to potential tissue damage. A long list of animals representing diverse taxa possess venom-mediated, pain-inducing bites or stings that work by co-opting the pain-sensing pathways enemies. Typically, such venoms include toxins cause damage disrupt neuronal activity, rendering painful honest indicators harm. But could pain alone be sufficient for deterring a hungry predator? Some venomologists have argued “no”; predators,...

Abstract The gut microbial communities of mammals provide numerous benefits to their hosts. However, given the recent development microbiome field, we still lack a thorough understanding variety ecological and evolutionary factors that structure these across species. Metabarcoding is powerful technique allows for multiple ecology questions be investigated simultaneously. Here, employed DNA metabarcoding techniques, predictive metagenomics, culture-dependent techniques inventory several...

Ground squirrels ( Spermophilus spp.) have evolved a battery of defences against the rattlesnakes Crotalus that preyed on them for millions years. The distinctive behavioural reactions by these to recently been shown include self-application rattlesnake scent—squirrels apply scent vigorously licking their fur after chewing shed skins. Here, we present evidence this behaviour is novel antipredator defence founded exploitation foreign scent. We tested three functional hypotheses snake...

Abstract The predator‐prey relationship between California ground squirrels ( Spermophilus beecheyi ) and northern Pacific rattlesnakes Crotalus riridis oreganus is a useful system in which to explore risk assessment management. Rattlesnakes are major predators of ground‐squirrel pups, but pose only sublethal threat adult squirrels. Adults approach, harass, even attack when confronted with them. A rattlesnake's response such harassment can include rattling striking. Not all the same an...

Although loss of wetlands in southern Appalachia has been especially severe, no avian studies have conducted the vestiges these ecosystems. Our research assessed use Appalachian breeding seasons 1999 through 2001. Site analyses included 18 habitat variables, including total wetland area, area open water, beaver or livestock evidence, edge type (abrupt gradual), and percent cover nine vegetation types. We analyzed species richness abundance at community level guilds based on migratory status...

Voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.8 regulates transmission of pain signals to the brain. While has potential serve as a drug target, molecular mechanisms that shape gating are not completely understood, particularly couple activation inactivation. Interactions between toxin producing animals and their predators provide novel approach for investigating NaV structure-function relationships. Arizona bark scorpions produce Na+ toxins initiate signaling. However, in predatory grasshopper mice,...